Helen Parker and Chloe Lake (2009-01-19)."E-cigarettes being sold online".Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2012-09-03.Helen Parker and Chloe Lake (2009-01-19).Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2012-09-03.Therapeutic Goods Administration (2008-10-15)."National Drugs and Poisons Schedule Committee -record of reasons of meeting 54" .Australian Government Department of_Health and Ageing Therapeutic Goods Administration: NDPSC document (chapter 12.1.3 at p.126-144).Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2009-06-15.The Word of the Year Is a Total DragWater condenses into visible droplets (aerosol) after evaporating from a cup of hot tea In physics a vapor (American) or vapour (British) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature,[1] which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature.A vapor is different from an aerosol.[2]An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid, solid, or both within a gas.[2]

For example, water has a critical temperature of 647 K (374 °C; 705 °F), which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist.In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures, therefore, gaseous water (known as water vapor) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently.dmt vaporizer redditA vapor may co-exist with a liquid (or a solid).lng hp vaporizerWhen this is true, the two phases will be in equilibrium, and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid (or solid).[1]vaporizer wiet temperatuurContents 1 2 3 4 5 6 The vapor-liquid critical point in a pressure-temperature phase diagram is at the high-temperature extreme of the liquid–gas phase boundary.vaporizer etherische olie

(The dotted green line gives the anomalous behaviour of water.)Vapor refers to a gas phase at a temperature where the same substance can also exist in the liquid or solid state, below the critical temperature of the substance.review portable vaporizer(For example, water has a critical temperature of 374 °C (647 K), which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist.)ios eclipse reviewIf the vapor is in contact with a liquid or solid phase, the two phases will be in a state of equilibrium.pediatric warm steam vaporizer reviewsThe term gas refers to a compressible fluid phase.e-zigarette wegwerfFixed gases are gases for which no liquid or solid can form at the temperature of the gas, such as air at typical ambient temperatures.vaporizer bournemouth

A liquid or solid does not have to boil to release a vapor.Vapor is responsible for the familiar processes of cloud formation and condensation.It is commonly employed to carry out the physical processes of distillation and headspace extraction from a liquid sample prior to gas chromatography.The constituent molecules of a vapor possess vibrational, rotational, and translational motion.These motions are considered in the kinetic theory of gases.The vapor pressure is the equilibrium pressure from a liquid or a solid at a specific temperature.The equilibrium vapor pressure of a liquid or solid is not affected by the amount of contact with the liquid or solid interface.The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to normal atmospheric pressure.[1]For two-phase systems (e.g., two liquid phases), the vapor pressure of the individual phases are equal.In the absence of stronger inter-species attractions between like-like or like-unlike molecules, the vapor pressure follows Raoult's Law, which states that the partial pressure of each component is the product of the vapor pressure of the pure component and its mole fraction in the mixture.

The total vapor pressure is the sum of the component partial pressures.[3]Water vapor is responsible for humidity Since it is in the gas phase, the amount of vapor present is quantified by the partial pressure of the gas.Also, vapors obey the barometric formula in a gravitational field, just as conventional atmospheric gases do.^ a b c General Chemistry ^ a b c ^ Physical Chemistry,Izabrani članak Pregled halštatske i latenske kulture U hrvatskim je krajevima željezno doba, koje se nastavlja na brončano doba, počelo u različito vrijeme – u Istri u 11. st. pr.Kr., u Lici tijekom 10. st. pr.Kr., a u sjevernoj Hrvatskoj, slično kao u zapadnoj i srednjoj Europi, oko 800. pr.Kao i drugdje po Europi, početak željeznodobnoga razdoblja u pojedinim je područjima različit i ovisi o mjesnim uvjetima i o vanjskim utjecajima, a s Bliskog Istoka i Egipta u Europu prodire u 11. st. pr.Kr., i to s egejskoga područja i Podunavljem.Dio današnjeg hrvatskog područja našao se u susjedstvu visokih sredozemnih civilizacija (grčka, etrurska, italska).

Nositelji halštatskih kultura bili su Histri, Japodi, Liburni, Delmati i Panonci.Živa sveza sa sredozemnim kulturama kasnohalštatsku civilizaciju zapadne i srednje Europe tijekom 5. st. pr.preobrazilo je u latensku kulturu mlađega željeznog doba, a njezini glavni promicatelji bili su Kelti.U željeznom dobu su se za izradbu oružja, oruđa i drugih predmeta koristili željezom.Tad se povećava se broj stanovnika, oblikuju se trgovački putovi i veze, nastaju etničke i etničko-plemenske zajednice, društveno raslojavanje kojim se izdvojio bogati sloj, nastanjen u kneževskim utvrđenim središtima, prepoznatljiv po grobnicama s prestižnim prilozima grčkoga, etrurskoga i italskoga podrijetla.Razdoblje starijega željeznoga doba na području srednje i zapadne Europe, nazvano halštatskom kulturom, traje do oko 450. pr.Kr., a mlađe željezno doba ili latenska kultura razvija se u drugoj polovici 1. tisućljeća pr.(pročitajte cijeli članak) • (sudjelujte u izboru članaka)A hospital nebulizer set up In medicine, a nebuliser[1] or nebulizer[2] (see spelling differences) is a drug delivery device used to administer medication in the form of a mist inhaled into the lungs.

Nebulizers are commonly used for the treatment of cystic fibrosis, asthma, COPD and other respiratory diseases or disorders.Analytical nebulizers are another form of nebulizer and are used primarily in laboratory settings for elemental analysis.Nebulizers use oxygen, compressed air or ultrasonic power to break up solutions and suspensions into small aerosol droplets that can be directly inhaled from the mouthpiece of the device.The definition of an aerosol is a "mixture of gas and liquid particles."Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Various asthma guidelines, such as the Global Initiative for Asthma Guidelines [GINA], the British Guidelines on the management of Asthma, The Canadian Pediatric Asthma Consensus Guidelines, and United States Guidelines for Diagnosis and Treatment of Asthma each recommend metered dose inhalers in place of nebulizer-delivered therapies.[3]The European Respiratory Society acknowledge that although nebulizers are used in hospitals and at home they suggest much of this use may not be evidence-based.[4]

Recent evidence show that nebulizers are no more effective than metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) with spacers and that MDIs may offer advantages in children with acute asthma.[3][5][][6]Those findings refer specifically to the treatment of asthma and not to the efficacy of nebulisers generally, as for COPD for example.For COPD, especially when assessing exacerbations or lung attacks, evidence shows no benefit from MDIs over nebulizers.[7]European Respiratory Society highlighted a risk relating to droplet size reproducibility caused by selling nebulizer devices separately from nebulized solution.They found this practice could vary droplet size 10-fold or more by changing from an inefficient nebulizer system to a highly efficient one.[4][5]Two advantages attributed to nebulizers, compared to MDIs with spacers (inhalers), were their ability to deliver larger dosages at a faster rate, especially in acute asthma; however, recent data suggests actual lung deposition rates are the same.In addition, another trial found that a MDI (with spacer) had a lower required dose for clinical result compared to a nebulizer (see Clark, et al.

The lung deposition characteristics and efficacy of an aerosol depend largely on the particle or droplet size.Generally, the smaller the particle the greater its chance of peripheral penetration and retention.However, for very fine particles below 0.5 µm in diameter there is a chance of avoiding deposition altogether and being exhaled.In 1966 the Task Group on Lung Dynamics, concerned mainly with the hazards of inhalation of environmental toxins, proposed a model for deposition of particles in the lung.This suggested that particles of more than 10 µm in diameter are most likely to deposit in the mouth and throat, for those of 5–10 µm diameter a transition from mouth to airway deposition occurs, and particles smaller than 5 µm in diameter deposit more frequently in the lower airways and are appropriate for pharmaceutical aerosols.[8]A vial of 0.5% albuterol sulfate as inhalation solution for nebulizing.The medical company [Boehringer Ingelheim] also invented a new device named Respimat Soft Mist Inhaler in 1997.

This new technology provides a metered dose to the user, as the liquid bottom of the inhaler is rotated clockwise 180 degrees by hand, adding a build up tension into a spring around the flexible liquid container.When the user activates the bottom of the inhaler, the energy from the spring is released and imposes pressure on the flexible liquid container, causing liquid to spray out of 2 nozzles, thus forming a soft mist to be inhaled.The device features no gas propellant and no need for battery/power to operate.The average droplet size in the mist was measured to a somewhat disappointing 5.8 micrometers, which could indicate some potential efficiency problems for the inhaled medicine to reach the lungs.Subsequent trials have proven this was not the case.Due to the very low velocity of the mist, the Soft Mist Inhaler in fact has a higher efficiency compared to a conventional pMDI.[9]In 2000, arguments were launched towards the European Respiratory Society (ERS) to clarify/expand their definition of a nebulizer, as the new Soft Mist Inhaler in technical terms both could be classified as a "hand driven nebulizer" and a "hand driven pMDI".[10]

The human-powered nebulizer (HPN) is designed to provide relief to patients suffering from respiratory diseases such as asthma, TB, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in areas with limited access to electricity.Invented in 2009 by a team of doctors from Marquette University, HPN uses a bicycle frame and pedals—each connected to a piston and some tubing—to turn liquid medicine into mist that flows directly into a patient's lungs through an attached mouthpiece.Commercial nebulizers typically use an electric compressor to maintain their rate of airflow, but with HPN, healthcare workers achieve the same goal by pedaling the equivalent of 8 miles per hour.[11]The most commonly used nebulizers are jet nebulizers, which are also called "atomizers".[12]Jet nebulizers are connected by tubing to a compressor, that causes compressed air or oxygen to flow at high velocity through a liquid medicine to turn it into an aerosol, which is then inhaled by the patient.Currently there seems to be a tendency among physicians to prefer prescription of a pressurized Metered Dose Inhaler (pMDI) for their patients, instead of a jet nebulizer that generates a lot more noise (often 60 dB during use) and is less portable due to a heavier weight.

However jet nebulizers are commonly used for patients in hospitals who have difficulty using inhalers, such as in serious cases of respiratory disease, or severe asthma attacks.[13]The main advantage of the jet nebulizer is related to its low operational cost.If the patient needs to inhale medicine on a daily basis the use of a pMDI can be rather expensive.Today several manufacturers have also managed to lower the weight of the jet nebulizer down to 635 grams (22.4 oz), and thereby started to label it as a portable device.Compared to all the competing inhalers and nebulizers, the noise and heavy weight is however still the biggest draw back of the jet nebulizer.Trade names for jet nebulizers include Maxin.[14]Ultrasonic wave nebulizers were invented in 1964[] as a new type of portable nebulizer.The technology inside an ultrasonic wave nebulizer is to have an electronic oscillator generate a high frequency ultrasonic wave, which causes the mechanical vibration of a piezoelectric element.

This vibrating element is in contact with a liquid reservoir and its high frequency vibration is sufficient to produce a vapor mist.[15]As they create aerosols from ultrasonic vibration instead of using a heavy air compressor, they only have a weight around 170 grams (6.0 oz).Another advantage is that the ultrasonic vibration is almost silent.Examples of these more modern type of nebulizers are: Omron NE-U17 and Beurer Nebulizer IH30.[16]A new significant innovation was made in the nebulizer market around 2005, with creation of the ultrasonic Vibrating Mesh Technology (VMT).With this technology a mesh/membrane with 1000-7000 laser drilled holes vibrates at the top of the liquid reservoir, and thereby pressures out a mist of very fine droplets through the holes.This technology is more efficient than having a vibrating piezoelectric element at the bottom of the liquid reservoir, and thereby shorter treatment times are also achieved.The old problems found with the ultrasonic wave nebulizer, having too much liquid waste and undesired heating of the medical liquid, have also been solved by the new vibrating mesh nebulizers.

Available VMT nebulizers include: Pari eFlow,[17] Respironics i-Neb,[18] Beurer Nebulizer IH50,[19] and Aerogen Aeroneb.[20]As the price of the ultrasonic VMT nebulizers is higher than models using previous technologies, most manufacturers continue to also sell the classic jet nebulizers.Nebulizers accept their medicine in the form of a liquid solution, which is often loaded into the device upon use.Corticosteroids and bronchodilators such as salbutamol (albuterol USAN) are often used, and sometimes in combination with ipratropium.The reason these pharmaceuticals are inhaled instead of ingested is in order to target their effect to the respiratory tract, which speeds onset of action of the medicine and reduces side effects, compared to other alternative intake routes.[13]Usually, the aerosolized medicine is inhaled through a tube-like mouthpiece, similar to that of an inhaler.The mouthpiece, however, is sometimes replaced with a face mask, similar to that used for inhaled anesthesia, for ease of use with young children or the elderly.

Pediatric masks are often shaped like animals such as fish, dogs or dragons to make children less resistant to nebulizer treatments.Many nebulizer manufacturers also offer pacifier attachments for infants and toddlers.But mouthpieces are preferable if patients are able to use them since face-masks result in reduced lung delivery because of aerosol losses in the nose.[12]After use with corticosteroid, it is theoretically possible for patients to develop a yeast infection in the mouth (thrush) or hoarseness of voice (dysphonia),although these conditions are clinically very rare.To avoid these adverse effects, some clinicians suggest that the person who used the nebulizer should rinse his or her mouth.This is not true for bronchodilators; however, patients may still wish to rinse their mouths due to the unpleasant taste of some bronchodilating drugs.Sales-Girons pressurized nebulizer from 1858.The first "powered" or pressurized inhaler was invented in France by Sales-Girons in 1858.[21]This device used pressure to atomize the liquid medication.

The pump handle is operated like a bicycle pump.When the pump is pulled up, it draws liquid from the reservoir, and upon the force of the user's hand, the liquid is pressurized through an atomizer, to be sprayed out for inhalation near the user's mouth.[22]In 1864, the first steam-driven nebulizer was invented in Germany.This inhaler, known as "Siegle’s steam spray inhaler", used the Venturi principle to atomize liquid medication, and this was the very beginning of nebulizer therapy.The importance of droplet size was not yet understood, so the efficacy of this first device was unfortunately mediocre for many of the medical compounds.The Siegle steam spray inhaler consisted of a spirit burner, which boiled water in the reservoir into steam that could then flow across the top and into a tube suspended in the pharmaceutical solution.The passage of steam drew the medicine into the vapor, and the patient inhaled this vapor through a mouthpiece made of glass.[23]The first electrical nebulizer was invented in the 1930s and called a Pneumostat.

With this device, a medical liquid (typically adrenalin chloride, used as a bronchial muscle relaxant to reverse constriction) was made aerosol by the power from an electrical compressor.[24]As an alternative to the expensive electrical nebulizer, many people in the 1930s continued to use the much more simple and cheap hand-driven nebulizer, known as the Parke-Davis Glaseptic.[25]In 1956, a technology competing against the nebulizer was launched by Riker Laboratories (3M), in the form of pressurized metered-dose inhalers, with Medihaler-iso (isoprenaline) and Medihaler-epi (adrenaline) as the two first products.[26]In these devices, the drug is cold-fill and delivered in exact doses through some special metering valves, driven by a gas propellant technology (i.e.Freon or a less environmentally damaging HFA).[21]In 1964, a new type of electronic nebulizer was introduced: the "ultrasonic wave nebulizer".[27]Today the nebulizing technology is not only used for medical purposes.Ultrasonic wave nebulizers are also used in humidifiers, to spray out water aerosols to moisten dry air in buildings.[15]

Some of the first models of electronic cigarettes featured an ultrasonic wave nebulizer (having a piezoelectric element vibrating and creating high-frequency ultrasound waves, to cause vibration and atomization of liquid nicotine) in combination with a vapouriser (built as a spray nozzle with an electric heating element).[28]The most common type of electronic cigarettes currently sold, however, omit the ultrasonic wave nebulizer, as it was not found to be efficient enough for this kind of device.Instead, the electronic cigarettes now use an electric vaporizer, either in direct contact with the absorbent material in the "impregnated atomizer," or in combination with the nebulization technology related to a "spraying jet atomizer" (in the form of liquid droplets being out-sprayed by a high-speed air stream, that passes through some small venturi injection channels, drilled in a material absorbed with nicotine liquid).[29]^ ^ ^ a b c ^ a b ^ a b ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ /science/environment/green-energy/7-ways-pedal-power-will-change-the-world-6#slide-6 ^ a b ^ a b ^ ^ a b ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ a b ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^